I'm back after two years to talk about Biotechnology Career

I have seen most of the Biotechnology students changing their field to Management after their degree. Many give the reason of ‘Job opportunities’, many say ‘It’s hard to pursue higher studies in this field ,since it’s very expensive’. There are lots of wrong assumptions about the field of Biotechnology in the young minds today. So here is a set of articles which tells about the ‘Careers’ in the field of Biotechnology and information about the higher studies as well. I dedicate this to all my students, especially them who have plans of changing the field.

For me Biotechnology is one of the most exciting new sciences of this century. Bio-Technology is a research oriented science. Biotechnology may be as old as human civilization but modern biotechnology is less than three decades old. Biotechnology is that branch of science with amalgamates biology and technology in order to derive productive results from biological organisms through technological applications. It covers a wide variety of subjects like Genetics, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Immunology, Virology, Chemistry and Engineering and is also concerned with many other subjects like Health and Medicine, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Cropping system and Crop Management, Ecology, Cell Biology, Soil science and Soil Conservation, Bio-statistics, Plant Physiology, Seed Technology etc.

Though it has many faces, Biotechnology is not a field which helps you starts minting money soon after your graduation. It is necessary to have a good basic knowledge and also pursue research to make an identity in the field. The upcoming articles will tell you about the best colleges, Universities and Educational institutions who offer good courses followed with few articles about Job opportunities.

It’s very good if a student clears TOEFL, IELTS or GRE during their graduation itself. Other than that we have an exclusive Biotechnology paper in GATE which is easier to clear compared to GRE. Along with that there are certain other entrance exams which a student can take up and join for M.Sc or Integrated Ph.D in different Institutions. This blog will give the syllabus of most of these entrance exams and tips to easily solve them.

Go ahead and try your luck!!! All the Best…..

SYLLABUS FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY (BT)

Linear Algebra:

Matrices and determinants, Systems of linear equations, Eigen values and Eigen vectors.

Calculus:

Limit, continuity and differentiability, Partial derivatives, Maxima and minima, Sequences and series, Test for convergence, Fourier series.

Differential Equations:

Linear and nonlinear first order ODEs, higher order ODEs with constant coefficients, Cauchy’s and Euler’s equations, Laplace transforms, PDE- Laplace, heat and wave equations.

Probability and Statistics:

Mean, median, mode and standard deviation, Random variables, Poisson, normal and binomial distributions, Correlation and regression analysis.

Numerical Methods:

Solution of linear and nonlinear algebraic equations, Integration of trapezoidal and Simpson’s rule, Single and multistep methods for differential equations.

Microbiology:

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structure; Microbial nutrition, growth and control; Microbial metabolism (aerobic and anaerobic respiration, photosynthesis); Nitrogen fixation; Chemical basis of mutations and mutagens; Microbial genetics (plasmids, transformation, transduction, conjugation); Microbial diversity and characteristic features; Viruses.

Biochemistry:

Biomolecules and their conformation; Ramachandran map; Weak inter-molecular interactions in biomacromolecules; Chemical and functional nature of enzymes; Kinetics of single substrate and bi-substrate enzyme catalyzed reactions; Bioenergetics;

PHEROMONES FOR PEST CONTROL: HOW SUCCESSFUL ARE WE?!

In my last Blog, I had promised to bring few more informations about these pheromones. Here it is. The most happening and an important use of pheromones. I will be writing another article about the same topic and will switch over to some career news for biotechnologists.

The pheromones are used by different organisms for different reasons. For alerting the group from threat, for sexual attraction etc. but there are other uses of pheromones which are discovered by our scientists. These pheromones can be effectively used for the control of pests in the fields.

In 1995, in United Stated, a group of insects known as Beet army-worms caused a multi million dollars loss in Texas alone by seriously affecting the cotton growing area. But in 1997, researchers could avoid it by disrupting mating procedure between male and female Beet army-worms by flooding 35-acre cotton field with sex attractant pheromones. With such a pervasion of female scent, the males could not find the females for more than hundred days, and gradually the pest rate reduced. In such a way, certain pheromone traps have also been engineered and are commonly used by farmers and also the home owners. For example Indian Meal Moths (pantry Moths) are attracted to a pheromone in a small box which is actually a sticky substance, and are thus captured for disposal.

By the usage of these pheromones for controlling the pest, we are not only protecting the plant from the pest attack but also the environment by hazardous effects of the chemical pesticides for these pheromones are naturally occurring and eco-friendly. In fact, few spiders in the United States and also African forests have also said to produce have also said to use pheromones in their trap to catch their pray. The Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT), Hyderabad, India, has done and still doing lot of research in the field of pheromonal control pests and the scientists here has also developed “Pheromone Banks”.

To develop a Pheromonal pest controlling chemical, it is first necessary to know the pheromonal systems of the different pests which have attacked the different crops. The scientists from IICT have also discovered Pheromone Systems in many pests like Amsacta albistriga-Red hairy caterpillar (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) which attacks the crop Polyphaguous, Hyblaea puera Teak defoliator (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) which attacks Teak, Orthaja exvinacea Mango leaf Webber (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) which attacks almost all varieties of Mango, Nephatis serinopa Black headed caterpillar (Lepidoptera: Xylorectiidae) which attacks coconut, Atherigona soccata Sorghum shoot fly (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) which attacks Sorghum.

Several synthetic pheromones have been developed in order to control the pests. If the synthetic pheromone is extensively seducing and the population of the attacking pest is low, some control can be achieved with pheromone traps or this technique can also be called as “attract and kill”. The mechanism is very simple. Generally ‘mating disruptions’ have been successful in controlling of pests. Synthetic pheromones are released from numerous sources placed in different parts of the field. Because of this, the males are unable to find the respective females for mating and hence the offspring rate is considerably reduced. This technique has been successful in pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella, and Grapholita molesta.

But the most common use of pheromones is still under prognosis. By using a few traps, a farmer can check the population of the pests and can decide when it is time to spray. If the levels never reach a critical level, no spraying is required.

PHEROMONES: 'THE SCENT OF EROS'

We have seen hundreds of peacocks dancing with its beautiful feathers wide open. It’s not just because it’s raining or the peacock is happy; it is actually trying to attract its partner for mating. There are different kinds of actions, different modes of attraction in each kind of species to attract its partner. One such is PHEROMONES. These are something which you can’t see, which you can’t feel, which you can’t smell. But yes; there presence adds an essence to your life.

The word ‘Pheromone’ is from the Greek words pherein, which means to bring or to transfer, and hormone, which means to excite. Most studied pheromones are volatile smells but other is transferred by direct skin-to-skin contact. Pheromones are primarily present in the skin and the glands of skin, in saliva, urine, and vaginal liquids. (Cohn 1994).

These pheromones are actually a special kind of chemical messengers emitted by any species which will evoke responses in another individual of the same species. The scientists have studied the existence of pheromones extensively in insects, but higher organisms like pigs and elephants may also emit pheromones. It is now known that, human beings also do emit pheromones, though not scientifically proved. In past fifty decades, thousands of insects have been chemically elucidated for the structure, composition, function and the capacity of these ‘magical messengers’.

ALARM PHEROMONES: Bees use isopentyl acetate as an alarm signal. The ‘Guard Bees’ will raise their abdomen and emit the pheromones and these pheromones are transmitted by beating their wings faster and continuous. This will make the entire bee hive aware of the incoming threat. When a bee stings a target, these pheromones are deposited on the spot along with the venom which encourages the other bees to attack the target, stinging at the same place. Since the pheromones used here are for alarming signals, they are generally called “alarm pheromones”.

TRAIL PHEROMONES: Ants extensively use pheromones. When ants return to their nest with the food, they lay down a “trail pheromone”. This trail attracts and guides other ants to the food. By chance, if the train is cut off in between, by a chalk or some powder etc., the ants will get totally confused. They start wandering randomly or they return in the opposite direction.

QUEEN MANDIBULAR PHEROMONES: Have you ever seen any ‘Queen Bee’ working?! No. She never does. Honey bee queens always literally are surrounded by a retinue of worker bees. This is mainly because of the pheromones emitted by the queen bees from their mandibular glands. These pheromones are actually mixture of alcohols and organic acids. These pheromones will
· Induce the worker bees to feed and groom the queen bee
· Inhibit the worker bees from building queen cells and rearing new queens
· Inhibit ovary development in the worker bees.
Other than this, the pheromones are also found in many other insects like silkworm moths (from which they were first isolated), different species of spiders, millipedes, the turnip moths, gypsy moths, Japanese beetles and a variety of parasitic and symbiotic beetles. The complex but primitive single celled amoeba Dictyostelium also uses a pheromone to attract others of its kind and follow reproduction.

But the most amazing fact is; Pheromones also exist in human beings. Scientists have proved that these Pheromones act as ‘sex attractants’ in human beings. Scientists at the Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, and its counterpart in France, discovered what they came to realize are human pheromones. These chemicals were found in a decidedly unsexy substance: Human Sweat. These scientists isolated a pure pheromone compound called-Androstenone (ALPHA ANDROST-16-EN-3 ONE). In human men, more pheromones are secreted in the sweat. But it is usually washed off because it is considered that it is an unpleasant way to meet a woman with a sweaty body. The irony lies here! We take shower and clean off the natural ‘Scent of Eros’ and we apply loads of artificial fragrances and perfumes which are in fact useless and also harmful to our health.

The pheromones do not only increase sexual interactions. They help to increase the bondage between the mother and the child. Many pheromones are air borne particles that pass through air after evaporation by the heat of the body. Some pheromones are heavy proteins that cannot be passed through the air by evaporation. These are passed by physical contact such as by kissing or skin-to-skin contact. Kissing occurs in all human cultures and is a way of passing identification pheromones. When a mother kisses her baby, this increases the mother-baby bonding.

But a strange thing is, these pheromones are found in almost all living organisms, starting from a single celled amoeba to complex species like pigs, goat and also human beings. But these pheromones are not identified in any of the birds. Till now many of the birds have been studied for their pheromonal existence, but the researchers have got no results out of it. But still sexual interactions take place in them too by other means. The nature is a secret and a unique designer.

In my next article I am going to speak about the Research going on in this field and the advantages of these pheromones and also how these pheromones are recognised in human beings.

ATOPIC DERMATITIS

Atopic dermatitis is one of the fastest emerging skin disorders through out the world. With the increase in pollution related problems, skin disorders are just increasing. Here is a little about the disorder which was a part of my dissertation work…

Dermatitis simply means skin inflammation, but it embraces a range of ailments. In most cases the early stages are characterized by dry, red, itchy skin, although acute attacks may result in crusty scales or blisters that ooze fluid.

The categories of dermatitis:

Contact dermatitis typically causes the skin to develop a pink or red rash, which may or may not itch. Pinpointing the exact cause of contact dermatitis can be difficult. The leading culprits are poison ivy, poison oak, detergents, soaps, some synthetic fibers etc.

Nummular dermatitis consists of distinctive coin-shaped red patches that are most commonly seen on the legs, hands, arms, and torso.

Seborrheic dermatitis consists of greasy, yellowish, or reddish scaling on the scalp and other hairy areas.

Stasis dermatitis is caused by poor circulation and can happen in people with varicose veins, congestive heart failure, or other conditions.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronically relapsing skin disease that occurs most commonly during early infancy and childhood. It is frequently associated with elevated serum IgE levels and a personal or family history of AD, allergic rhinitis, and/or asthma. There is no single distinguishing feature of AD or a diagnostic laboratory test. Thus, the diagnosis is based on the constellation of clinical findings.

HISTORICAL ASPECTS

This disorder was probably first reported by Robert Willan, in 1808, as a prurigo-like condition.

In 1923, Coca and associates introduced the term atopy , meaning “ out of place” or “strange”, to signify the hereditary tendency to develop allergies.

Atopic dermatitis is also known as atopic eczema, infantile eczema, flexural eczema and disseminated neurodermatitis.

EPIDEMIOLOGY

• The prevalence of AD in adults is approximately 1 to 3 percent.

• There is also a female preponderance for AD, with an overall female/male ratio of 1.3:1.

• Although the tendency to develop AD is inherited, inheritance patterns do not follow strict Mendelein patterns and the overall prevalence of AD is increasing.

ETIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS

• Complex interactions among genetic, environmental, skin barrier, pharmacologic, and immunologic factors contribute to the pathogenesis of AD.

• The concept that AD has an immunologic basis is supported by the observation that patients with primary T cell immunodeficiency disorders frequently have elevated serum IgE levels and eczematoid skin lesions indistinguishable from AD.

Systemic Immune Abnormalities

• Increased synthesis of IgE

• Increased specific IgE to multiple allergens, including foods, aeroallergens, microorganisms, bacterial toxins, autoallergens

• Increased expression of CD23 on B cells and monocytes

• Increased basophil histamine release

• Impaired delayed-type hypersensitivity response

• Eosinophilia

• Increased secretion of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 by T_H2 cells

• Decreased secretion of IFN-γ by T_H1 cells

• Increased soluble IL-2 receptor levels

lmmunologic Triggers

FOODS:

• Induce eczematous dermatitis

• Common allergens are: milk, egg, wheat, soy and peanut.

• Increase in histamine levels and eosinophil activation.

AEROALLERGENS:

• E.g. dust mites, weeds, animal dander and molds.

AUTOALLERGENS:

• IgE against auto antigens are made in the skin.

• Auto antigens trigger IgE or T- cell mediated responses.

Immune Response in AD Skin

ROLE OF CYTOKINES :

• T_H2- and T_H1-type cytokines contribute to the pathogenesis of skin inflammation in AD.

• Increased number of cells expressing IL-4 and IL-13, but not IL-5, IL-12, or IFN-γ .

• Activated T cells infiltrating the skin of AD patients have also been found to induce keratinocyte apotosis contributing to the spongiotic process found in AD skin lesions.

PERSISTENT SKIN INFLAMMATION:

• Mechanical trauma induces the release of TNF-α and many other proinflammatory cytokines from epidermal keratinocytes.

• Chronic scratching plays a role in the perpetuation and elicitation of skin inflammation in AD.

CHEMOATTRACTANT FACTORS :

• IL-16, a chemoattractant for CD4+ T cells, is more highly expressed in acute than chronic AD skin lesions.

• It was shown that TARC and MDC levels in AD sera significantly correlate to disease activity.

• The results obtained were:

Ø serum MDC levels in AD patients were significantly higher than those in psoriasis vulgaris patients or healthy controls

Ø serum MDC levels in the severe group of AD patients were significantly higher than those in the mild or moderate groups

GENETICS

• Familially transmitted with a strong maternal influence

• Potential role of chromosome 5q31-33 because it contains a clustered family of cytokine genes-IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and GM-CSF-which are expressed by T_H2 cells.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

Diagnosis of AD is based on the constellation of clinical features:

Clinical Features of Atopic Dermatitis

• Major Features

Facial and extensor eczema in infants and children

Chronic or relapsing dermatitis

Personal or family history of atopic disease

• Associated features

Xerosis

Nonspecific dermatitis of the hands or feet

Ichthyosis, palmar hyperlinearity

Nipple eczema

Anterior subcapsular cataracts, keratoconus

Elevated serum IgE levels

Positive immediate-type allergy skin tests

Early age of onset

Dennie-Morgan infraorbital folds, orbital darkening

Facial erythema or pallor

Course influenced by environmental and\or emotional factors

LABORATORY FINDINGS

• Serum IgE levels are elevated in majority of patients with AD

• 85% patients have positive immediate skin tests directed to a variety of food, inhalant and microbial allergens.

• Serum levels of eosinophil cationic protein and urinary eosinophil protein X are elevated in AD.

TREATMENT AND PROGNOSIS

• Topical Therapy

Ø CUTANEOUS HYDRATION

Ø TOPICAL GLUCOCORTICOID TREATMENT

• TOPICAL IMMUNOMODULATORS

Ø Tacrolimus

Identification and Elimination of Triggering Factors

• SPECIFIC ALLERGENS

• EMOTIONAL STRESSORS

• INFECTIOUS AGENTS

• TAR PREPARATIONS

• PHOTOTHERAPY

• OTHER THERAPIES

• PROGNOSIS

CONCLUSION

• Focus has, meanwhile, shifted to new research on the role of the skin barrier in AD, with particular interest in groundbreaking research showing that genetic mutations appear to play a critical role in the skin barrier function as it relates to atopic dermatitis.

• The barrier research, the role of immunity and antimicrobial peptides and the whole role of S. aureus are the big areas of interest right now.

Children With Three Biological Parents?

6^th February, 2008!.. Discovery channel, BBC world, The Fox news and almost all media, reported about the British scientists who have done a new miracle in the biotechnological field. HUMAN embryos with three parents have been created for the first time by The British scientists. Yes. It’s true. All I can say is, the day is not too far when a child on its first day of school shares with its friends that it belongs to “one dad, and two moms”.

For as long as humans can remember, it takes one man and one woman to create a child. Many animals follow suit, with those reproducing asexually being the exceptions. Either way, two parents seem to be the natural maximum for parenting one child.

British scientists are challenging our notions of normalcy, though, as they claim to have created embryos from two women and one man: three parents. The bioethics of genetically modified babies is a touchy subject, but this group of researcher’s claims that the embryos are still primarily the result of a single man and woman.

The research was disclosed last month in parliament's upper House of Lords but has not yet been published officially in scientific journals, the university said. The impetus of this project was to help prevent the occurrence of debilitating diseases caused by mishaps in mitochondrial DNA.

I’ll be failing in my duties if I don’t tell my readers what a Mitochondria is, what happens if there is a mishap in it. Let me introduce you to “The Energisers” of the cell. “THE MITOCHONDRIA”.

MITOCHONDRIA:

Mitochondria provide the energy a cell needs to move, divide, produce secretary products, contract - in short; they are the power centers of the cell. They are about the size of bacteria but may have different shapes depending on the cell type. Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles, and like the nucleus have a double membrane.

Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that can be considered the power generators of the cell, converting oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy "currency" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities. This process is called aerobic respiration and is the reason animals breathe oxygen. Without mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion), higher animals would likely not exist because their cells would only be able to obtain energy from anaerobic respiration (in the absence of oxygen), a process much less efficient than aerobic respiration. In fact, mitochondria enable cells to produce 15 times more ATP than they could otherwise, and complex animals, like humans, need large amounts of energy in order to survive.

Mitochondria contain their own DNA (mtDNA) which codes for 13 essential proteins that form part of the final common pathway for cellular metabolism. MtDNA is maternally inherited and each human cell contains thousands of copies. Patients with pathogenic mutations of mtDNA often harbour a mixture of mutated and wild-type genomes (heteroplasmy). The clinical phenotype is related to the proportion of mutated mtDNA inherited from the mother, and this can vary markedly, both between siblings and also within the same individual.

MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASES:

More than 40 known types

Mitochondrial disease is a difficult disorder to identify because it can take many forms, and range from mild to severe. The problems it causes may begin at birth or not occur until later in adult life. It is estimated that mitochondrial disease affects between 40,000 and 70,000 Americans, occurring in one in 2,500 to 4,000 births.

Mitochondria may not function correctly due to a genetic defect, damage caused by drugs, or damage caused by free radicals (destructive molecules).

Many effects, many symptoms: -
Because mitochondria are in cells all over the body, many different organs may be affected, including the brain and muscles. Some of the problems associated with mitochondrial disease are:

• Brain: developmental delays, mental retardation, seizures, dementia
• Nerves: weakness, pain
• Muscles: weakness, low tone, cramping, pain
• Heart disease
• Eyes: twitching, vision loss
• Kidney disease
• Respiratory problems

Treatment
There is no cure for mitochondrial disease. Some helpful treatments include vitamins such as thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B12), vitamin C, and vitamin E. Lipoic acid and coenzyme Q-10 are also useful supplements.

Some researchers are examining using drugs to block lactic acid buildup in the body that is common in mitochondrial disease. Others are trying very low carbohydrate diets to reduce the workload for mitochondria.

But here is a latest technique, a complete cure, and one day, may completely eradicate the diseases from the world. But how is it done?!

MECHANISM: -

It sounds like the storyline from a cheesy film, but a human embryo has been created using the genetic material from one man and two women. A team from Newcastle University, England, developed the technique in the hope that it could be used to prevent diseases caused by faulty mitochondria. Their experiment started with two ingredients: first, a left over (and 'severely abnormal') embryo from an IVF treatment; second, a donor egg from another woman. The donor egg has all but the mitochondrial DNA removed, and then a nucleus from the embryo is inserted into the egg. Effectively, this results in a mitochondria transplant. The protocol may sound quite simple, but a very risky and a superbly elegant one. 'While any baby born through this method would have genetic elements from three people, the nuclear DNA that influences appearance and other characteristics would not come from the woman providing the donor egg. However, the team only has permission to carry out the lab experiments and as yet this would not be allowed to be offered as a treatment.

ETHICAL ISSUES…..

Critics argue the research is a worrying step towards creating genetically manipulated or "designer" babies. The y say going against nature will ruin the concept of family unit.

Mitochondrial DNA is not part of the genome that is contained in the cell nucleus. It isn't even genetic material the cell directly governs. Mitochondria are actually capable of replicating their own genomes and dividing without influence of the cell itself. (I.e. they replicate independently of mitosis). So there is no way that a “mitochondrial transplant violates” any kind of ethics or any religious issues. This topic is simply fascinating…

All new inventions in science will have to face such issues. When the world did not accept the concept of “earth revolving around sun” given by Galileo, how will the world accept this concept?! For years people believed that the Drosophilas take birth from the fruit flies itself, until it was disproved by An Italian priest, Lazzaro Spallanzani’. Nobody accepted the idea of invitro fertilization itself at first, but now?! Now, it’s a boon to those who do not have children. Everybody raised their voice against surrogate motherhood. But now, the government is thinking of legalizing it. It’s all a matter of few days. Society will accept it soon, and it has to.

“We are not trying to alter genes, we're just trying to swap a small proportion of the bad ones for some good ones," said Patrick Chinnery, a professor of neurogenetics at Newcastle University involved in the research.

Dr.Patrick Chinery, Brain behind the Magic

"Most of the genes that make you who you are; are inside the nucleus," Chinnery said. "We're not going anywhere near that."

Prof.Doug Turnbull.

“Maybe in five to ten years we will be able to do something to stop the inheritance of Mitochondrial diseases”, said Dr. Turnbull, The head of the team.

So far, 10 such embryos have been created, though they have not been allowed to develop for more than five days. Chinnery hoped that after further experiments in the next few years the process might be available to parents undergoing in-vitro fertilization.

The science still has a long way to go…………

For further info, visit...

REFERENCES:-

news.softpedia.com/news/Children-With-Three-Biological-Parents-78026.shtml
www.guardian.co.uk/science/2004/oct/17/genetics.health
blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/02/three-parent-ch.html